Comprehensive Works Cited

Works Cited

Bickel, Lennard. “Drought Becomes Disaster” Science News. 94.9 (1968): 220. Print.

Box, Thadis and Rayden Perry. “Rangeland Management in Australia.” Journal of 

Range Management. 24.3 (1971): 167-171. Print.

Crosby, Alfred W. Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 

900-1900. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2004. Print.

Davies, Jocelyn and Sarah Holcombe. “Desert knowledge: integrating knowledge and

development in arid and semi-arid drylands.” Geojournal 74.5 (2009): 

363-375. Print.

Dunlap, Thomas. “Australian Nature, European Culture: Anglo Settlers in Australia.”

            Environmental History Review 17.1 (1993): 25-48. Print.

Mosimann, James E. and Paul S. Martin. “Simulating Overkill by Paleoindians: Did

man hunt the giant mammals of the New World to extinction? Mathematical

models show that the hypothesis is feasible.” American Scientist. 63.3 (1975): 304-313.

Print.

McKnight, Tom. “Barrier Fencing for Vermin Control in Australia.” Geographical 

Review 59.3 (1969): 330-347. Print.

Short, Jeff and Andrew Smith. “Mammal Decline and Recovery in Australia.” Journal

of Mammalogy 75.2 (1994): 288-297. Print.

Yibarbuk, B, et al. “Fire Ecology and Aboriginal Land Management in Central Arnhem 

Land, Northern Australia: A Tradition of Ecosystem Management.” Journal of 

Biogeography. 28.3 (2001): 325-343. Print.

Current Impacts: A Table

(Source: Short, Jeff and Andrew Smith. “Mammal Decline and Recovery in Australia.” Journal of

            Mammalogy 75.2 (1994): 288-297. Print.)

The pie charts above show a break down of the recent global recent extinctions from 1988. As can be seen, about half of extinctions globally during this time came from Australia. Of these Australian extinctions, three-fourths are made up of marsupials and rodents. Indeed, many of these extinctions may have resulted from European impacts to the Outback desert. Thus, human disturbances to this ecosystem such as hunting and grazing might have indirectly led to the end of several species in Australia.

The following table further supports the idea that human intervention led to the extinction of animals in Australia. The table records the amount of bounties paid for the killing of different animals in New South Wales from 1883 to 1920. The invasion of Australia by species such as the European rabbit and fox combined with widespread hunting of native mammals may have led to drastic drops in the populations -- and even extinctions -- of certain mammals.

(Source: Short, Jeff and Andrew Smith. “Mammal Decline and Recovery in Australia.” Journal of

            Mammalogy 75.2 (1994): 288-297. Print.)

How to Improve Human Impacts to the Outback Desert

The Australian Outback provides humans with many benefits. It provides the people of Australia with land for agriculture and ranging and also functions as an important source of revenue as a tourist destination. More importantly, however, is the Outback's exceptional degree of biodiversity. Being isolated from the rest of the world for millions of years, the Australian outback has great of amounts of endemic flora and fauna. Accordingly, it is important that this region continues to strive as a unique ecosystem. To address the main issues affecting the well-being of the Australian Outback -- namely, the detrimental effects of invasive species, the threat of large and uncontrollable fires, and the degradation of land -- steps must be taken that will ensure that the Outback can maintain its high levels of biodiversity.

Dealing With Invasive Species
The most effective means of getting rid of invasive species in Australia is direct killing. Thus, shooting foreign pests such as rabbits is the most common and favorable method to control their populations (McKnight 331). Additionally, using poison to kill foreign species can help improve the status of threatened and endangered animals in the Outback (Short 296). The great initial degree of success of myxomatosis in killing rabbits testifies to the effectiveness of poison in dealing with large scale population growth of invasive species.

Controlling Bush Fires
Before the arrival of the Europeans, the native people of Australia, called aboriginals, lived in the Outback. These aboriginals lived sustainable lives in a desert environment in which vegetation is adapted to fire. To help regulate the Outback ecosystem, these aboriginals managed controlled fires that were relatively small in size (Yibarbuk 325). The arrival of Europeans resulted in the death and displacement of these aboriginals. Consequently, the fires in the Outback that were once smaller and more common, became much larger and destructive to plant life. To battle these high intensity bush fires and develop a more sustainable environment, people of the Outback need to create smaller fires to reduce litter buildup just as the aboriginals did before them (Yibarbuk 325).

An example of a controlled fire in Kimberly, Australia

(Image source: http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/new-fire-plan-for-the-kimberley.htm)

Solving Australia's Land Degradation Issue
Finally, a solution to the Outback's land degradation would be to better manage the land so that it can be continually used by humans. Historically, a significant portion of Australia's Outback was overgrazed; sheep and cattle ate entire areas of land containing native plants resulting in the degradation of soil. Indeed, throughout the 1950s and 1960s, many scientists predicted that Australia's Outback would soon become a desert similar to the Sahara (Bickel 220). The prevent this, groups must work to make the Outback more habitable for humans by "enhancing knowledge for sustainable livelihoods, stronger remote settlements,  thriving regional economies, and increased human and social capital in arid and semi-arid Australia" (Davies 364). Both aboriginals and non-aboriginals alike must work together so that future generations can continue to live in the Outback.

Future Prospects of the Outback Given Current Trends: The Positive Outlook

Another argument is that past problems of the Outback will soon be solved through advances in technology and better understanding of the desert ecosystem. This argument believes that the great expanses of the Outback, if taken care of properly, will be a source of increasing revenue through tourism (Box 170). Additionally, current range lands are primarily concerned with maintaining control of herds (Box 170). If even simple advances to these relatively primitive range lands were implemented, production could increase significantly in the Outback (Box 170). Thus, there is a lot of room for advances to be made in range management. This in turn would lead to less waste and less loss of native plants through grazing.

The Tasmanian Devil (pictured above) became extinct in mainland Australia possibly because it was considered a threat to livestock. Maybe one say, this endangered animal can once again populate the Outback.

(Image source: http://animal.discovery.com/tv/a-list/creature-countdowns/hissy-fits/hissy-fits-05.html)

Ultimately, current trends cannot tell us whether the Outback will head towards a negative path or a positive one. The answer to that question will come in time. If people continue to degrade land in the Outback and invasive species are not controlled, the future will probably see an Australia void of the large amounts of biodiversity it once had, nothing more but a sandy inhospitable desert. If advances in technology leads to  more sustainable ways of living in the Outback, however, the future might see populations of many rare and endangered species of the Outback bounce back to their original levels.

Future Prospects of the Outback Given Current Trends: The Negative Outlook

Many disagree on what will happen to the Outback in the future. Generally, there are two arguments. The first is that the same problems that have plagued the Outback historically will worsen until biodiversity and environmental conditions have fallen greatly. Just 20 years ago, nearly half of all mammal extinctions globally came from Australia (Short 288). The Tasmanian Tiger (Thylacine) provides us with an example of what might happen to the endangered animals in Australia if they are not property taken care of. In the early 1900s, the Tasmanian Tiger was already extinct in the Australian mainland. Despite this, Tasmania still offered bounties for killing them. This resulted in their completely extinction. Indeed, if Australia treats its endangered animals now as it did the Tasmanian Tiger, there is little hope that the Outback's biodiversity will be preserved in the future.

Tasmanian Tiger, extinct during the 20th century

(Image source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thylacinus_cynocephalus)

The Example of the Aboriginals

The destructive force humans have on new areas can not only affect animals and plant life, but also other humans. The aboriginal natives, indigenous to the lands of Australia for thousands of years, were negatively affected by the entry of Westerners into the Outback. Westerners, who often thought of these natives as backward and uncivilized, caused the massive decrease and dispersion of aboriginal populations.

(Image Source: https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgU1wx96UJ6F6l1IZbTR2b0PKjF8VwNjJjIXB0hhEGhjpyZGvRts5czmEd_CauE47Il9DTaPNBLxM5OaZFjaYs5tBH6rmhE5LG7lvD2VKdDeHRbzBnTMyplqlqu4NG4GH8_OJ1ltOwK1jHg/s1600/outback+aborigines.jpg)

Ancient Extinctions: Megafauna
Some may underestimate the influence of humans on ecosystems such as the one found in Australia's Outback. We can see from history, however, that this idea is without merit. Paul Martin's overkill hypothesis presents evidence that humans have historically been the cause of extinctions for many large animals (megafauna) throughout the entire world (Mosimann 304). In Australia in particular, evidence suggests that megafauna such as Procoptodon Goliah (the largest kangaroo to exist) were eaten by humans into extinction. Presently, it is important for humans to understand that importance of keeping ecosystems healthy so as to preserve diversity.

Procoptodon Goliah

(Image source: http://www.abc.net.au/science/features/megafauna/)

The Historical State of the Ecosystem

The Australian Outback desert ecosystem is unique because it has hardly changed over the course of millions of years (Dunlap 26).  Over a very broad timeline, however, it is clear that Australia's Outback was not always dry, flat, and barren. Some 55 million years ago, during the Eocene period, Australia had a warm and wet climate (compared to the hot and dry climate it has today). This means that much of what is now desert in Australia used to be tropical rain forest. As time passed, Australia became increasingly isolated from the rest of the world. Lack of any major plate movement and gradual erosion caused the land in this ecosystem to become flat and lacking in nutrients (Ollier 516).

The world during the Eocene period about 55 million years ago

(Image source: http://serc.carleton.edu/eet/deep_sea_sediments/case_study.html)

From a more contemporary perspective, it is evident that the Outback was left isolated from the rest of the world for many years. This allowed its native flora and fauna to develop in ways that the rest of the world's life did not. It was not until the British discovered Australia during the English colonial period that the Outback finally opened up to the rest of the world. To the first English settlers, the Outback was foreign and unsettling. This is evident from a quote by J Martin:

“...trees retained their leaves and shed their bark instead, the swans were black, the eagles white, the bees were stingless, some mammals had pockets, other laid eggs, it was warmest on the hills and coolest in the valleys..." (Crosby 7).

To make up for this great unfamiliarity with the Outback, European settlers brought with them plants and animals from Europe. Introduced animals and plants such as the cane toad and cactus soon began to multiply uncontrollably, leaving many problems for native Australians to deal with. In this way, the arrival of the Europeans resulted in the loss and endangerment of many rare and endemic species found in the Outback. An example of a foreign species that was introduced into the Australian Outback is the European rabbit. Only twenty years after a man named Thomas Austin brought the first group of rabbits into Australia for game purposes, the small mammal had grown in population so quickly that the collective rabbit population in Australia was referred to as the "grey blanket" (Dunlap 29). Attempts to shoot, poison, and even fence out the expanding rabbit population was only met with partial success. Rabbits were hard to shoot, they eventually grew immune to the strains of poison meant to kill them, and fencing them out failed because by the time these fences were completed, some rabbits had already crossed the border to the other side. (Dunlap 29; McKnight 332).

Picture of many rabbits plaguing the Outback

(Image source: http://www.salem-news.com/articles/june052010/rabbits-oil-spill-dj.php)

Current Human Impacts on the Ecosystem

Compared to other ecosystems throughout the world, the Australian Outback has been left relatively unchanged. Moreover, since only 3% of Australia's population actually live in the 70% of the continent that is considered desert, direct human impact is kept to a minimum (Davies 365). Aside from small groups of aboriginal natives, it was not until 1880 that Australia began to become settled by humans. Since then, however, problems brought upon by Europeans still continue to plague the continent. The arrival of the Europeans brought several invasive species that threatened native ones. Today, Australians still continue to deal with large populations of rabbit, cane toad, and fox.

Cane toad

(Image source: http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/notrocketscience/2011/02/22/drying-out-the-cane-toad-invasion/)

Europeans also brought grazing techniques and cattle to Australia. Widespread grazing has led to the destruction of much of the native lands of the desert ecosystem. The loss of vegetation in areas results in further soil erosion (Bickel 220). Grazing is still heavily practiced today which results in the degradation of land.

The Desert Ecosystem Found in The Outback

Below are a few pictures depicting the Outback desert. Generally, Outback areas are dry, flat, hot, and unsuitable for agriculture. Accordingly, Australians often engage in ranching. Native animals to Australia have adapted to the hot weather by resting during the day.

(Image source: http://www.polyvore.com/australia_sheep_grazing_desert_landscape/thing?id=62138125)

It rains in the Outback very little and if it does, it does so at random times throughout a year. Thus, much of the land in the Outback is not suitable for agriculture. Accordingly, many Australians choose to make ranches instead of farms. These ranches often tend to sheep or cattle. A major issue concerning ranches is that they are often unsustainable. Sheep and cattle often eat through entire areas of native vegetation, leaving lands barren afterwards.

(Image source: http://www.jaunted.com/files/3873/Australian_Outback.jpg)

The Outback is exceptionally flat due to millions of years of erosion. Lack of any major bodies of water -- or even rainfall -- has resulted in poor, dry soils. Small shrubs have adapted to the harsh climate and soils of the outback by being less dependent on water.

(Image source: http://www.aboutaustraliadiving.com/a2it_package/images/travel/Kangaroo_In_The_Outback.jpg)

Above is a picture of a kangaroo, a popular animal endemic to Australia. It is an example of the great biodiversity found in the Outback. The first Europeans to discover Australia were struck by how peculiar the animal and plant life was compared the the animals and plants they knew. 

What is the Outback?

Map of the Australian Outback (this is an approximation, as there is no official border to the Outback)

(Image source: http://www.dougsrepublic.com/australia/outback.php)

The subject of this blog is the Outback desert ecosystem that can only be found in Australia. This ecosystem is a large region in Australia that is characterized by a desert climate. This means that the Outback is any area that receives a minimal amount of rainfall. Although there is no clear border separating the Outback from its surrounding ecosystems such as tropical rain forests,  the map above presents a good general outline of what can be considered Outback territory. It is important to note that of the estimated 3 million square miles of land in Australia, about 70% of the continent of it makes up this desert ecosystem (Davies 363). The Outback ecosystem is important to study because it is one of the most biologically diverse ecosystems on the planet. Additionally, the Outback is interesting because it has undergone a rapid transformation from a completely isolated region to an area now heavily influenced by Western culture. When talking about how Europeans have affected the Outback, one must inevitably face problems concerning environmental degradation and the loss of biodiversity. Nonetheless, the story of the Outback is not complete without an explanation of the current attempts to preserve the desert ecosystem and the native species that call it home.